Thomas Aquinas Essays - Divine Command Theory, Religious Law

Thomas Aquinas Saint Thomas Aquinas, as a philosopher, wrote several works that justified Christianity in a philosophical context, taking cue on Aristotle's old writings. Naturally, Aquinas took up on the Church's ultra-conservative views on sexuality and worked to rationalize them through his own theory of natural law. Aquinas argues against any form of sex where the intention to produce children is not involved. He explains this through his theory of natural law, where sex is purely for the purpose of reproduction to ensure the continuance of the human race, only in the context of a monogamous relationship, and not for simple physical pleasure. There are many laws that Saint Thomas Aquinas speaks of, such as eternal law, human law, divine law, and natural law. All humans are part of God's plan and therefore subject to eternal law, where we are guided to God's supernatural end in a higher way (47). According to Aquinas, humans in particular follow God's eternal law through a natural law, and inborn instinct to do good. Something is said to be part of natural law if there is a natural inclination to it and if nature does not produce the contrary, (51-52). Natural law includes such ideas as self-preservation, union of the male and the female, and education of the young, which is easily found in nature. Humans also have a unique knowledge of God and were meant to live in a society. Aquinas explains that even though concepts such as slavery and personal possessions are not found alone in nature, they were created by human reason, and in such cases the law of nature was not changed but added to (52). Because we can do such things , we are separated from the rest of God's creatures. After explaining his theory of natural law, Aquinas goes on to explain sexuality in the context of it. According to him, promiscuity is contrary to the nature of man because to bring up a child requires both the care of the mother who nourishes him and even more the care of the father to train and defend him and to develop him in internal and external endowments (78). Therefore, he finds fornification to be a mortal sin because it is contrary to the good of the upbringing of the offspring (79). Curiously, though, he does not bring up the more likely scenario where fornification does not result in the impregnation of the woman. His reasoning makes much better sense in the case of adultery. Not only does it upset one's obligations to his family, but also because the Ten Commandments specifically condemn adultery as a great sin. The Ten Commandments are God's laws and are not relative, so there is no disputing their validity. However, Aquinas' argument that monogamy is natural for human s is not easily justified. If we look carefully at nature, most mammals have to be raised by their parents just as humans are, but only for a few years. Also, in many cases, the mother may raise her young with a different male, or on her own altogether. Therefore, this makes it harder for Aquinas to appeal to natural law to prove his case for monogamy and life-long relationships. Also, Aquinas does not agree that a male should have the option of leaving a female who has had a child even if it is properly provided for, making an indirect case against divorce (79). Curiously, in Islam, the Koran allows divorce and remarriage, and it is based for the most part on the very same Bible that Aquinas defended. Aquinas makes clear that sex is right only when it is for the purpose of reproduction and it should only be between a male and female in a monogamous relationship; all other forms are sinful. However, he brings up a very striking exception. The acts of fornification or adultery are not considered sins at all if they are performed under the command of God (52). This is simply a case of common sense, but it explains clearly any such indiscrepancies to natural law in the Bible. Aquinas goes on to define more serious mortal sins which he refers to as indecent sex. This includes homosexuality and bestiality. He quotes bestiality from the Thomas Aquinas Essays - Divine Command Theory, Religious Law Thomas Aquinas Saint Thomas Aquinas, as a philosopher, wrote several works that justified Christianity in a philosophical context, taking cue on Aristotle's old writings. Naturally, Aquinas took up on the Church's ultra-conservative views on sexuality and worked to rationalize them through his own theory of natural law. Aquinas argues against any form of sex where the intention to produce children is not involved. He explains this through his theory of natural law, where sex is purely for the purpose of reproduction to ensure the continuance of the human race, only in the context of a monogamous relationship, and not for simple physical pleasure. There are many laws that Saint Thomas Aquinas speaks of, such as eternal law, human law, divine law, and natural law. All humans are part of God's plan and therefore subject to eternal law, where we are guided to God's supernatural end in a higher way (47). According to Aquinas, humans in particular follow God's eternal law through a natural law, and inborn instinct to do good. Something is said to be part of natural law if there is a natural inclination to it and if nature does not produce the contrary, (51-52). Natural law includes such ideas as self-preservation, union of the male and the female, and education of the young, which is easily found in nature. Humans also have a unique knowledge of God and were meant to live in a society. Aquinas explains that even though concepts such as slavery and personal possessions are not found alone in nature, they were created by human reason, and in such cases the law of nature was not changed but added to (52). Because we can do such things , we are separated from the rest of God's creatures. After explaining his theory of natural law, Aquinas goes on to explain sexuality in the context of it. According to him, promiscuity is contrary to the nature of man because to bring up a child requires both the care of the mother who nourishes him and even more the care of the father to train and defend him and to develop him in internal and external endowments (78). Therefore, he finds fornification to be a mortal sin because it is contrary to the good of the upbringing of the offspring (79). Curiously, though, he does not bring up the more likely scenario where fornification does not result in the impregnation of the woman. His reasoning makes much better sense in the case of adultery. Not only does it upset one's obligations to his family, but also because the Ten Commandments specifically condemn adultery as a great sin. The Ten Commandments are God's laws and are not relative, so there is no disputing their validity. However, Aquinas' argument that monogamy is natural for human s is not easily justified. If we look carefully at nature, most mammals have to be raised by their parents just as humans are, but only for a few years. Also, in many cases, the mother may raise her young with a different male, or on her own altogether. Therefore, this makes it harder for Aquinas to appeal to natural law to prove his case for monogamy and life-long relationships. Also, Aquinas does not agree that a male should have the option of leaving a female who has had a child even if it is properly provided for, making an indirect case against divorce (79). Curiously, in Islam, the Koran allows divorce and remarriage, and it is based for the most part on the very same Bible that Aquinas defended. Aquinas makes clear that sex is right only when it is for the purpose of reproduction and it should only be between a male and female in a monogamous relationship; all other forms are sinful. However, he brings up a very striking exception. The acts of fornification or adultery are not considered sins at all if they are performed under the command of God (52). This is simply a case of common sense, but it explains clearly any such indiscrepancies to natural law in the Bible. Aquinas goes on to define more serious mortal sins which he refers to as indecent sex. This includes homosexuality and bestiality. He quotes bestiality from the

Smoking and adolescents Essays

Smoking and adolescents Essays Smoking and adolescents Essay Smoking and adolescents Essay Caffeine is one of the most consumed drinks in the World, and the crystalline substance was first separated in the early part of the 19th century (ARF, 2007).   Caffeine by itself appears white in color and tastes bitter.   It is derived from the Arabic word Arabic work ‘qahweh’ or from the Turkish word ‘kahveh’.   During the medieval period, coffee spread from the Northern African Region (where it was grown) to Europe through Arabia and Turkey.   It became a well-known drink in Europe, early during the 17th and 18th century (ARF, 2007).   It was grown in several portions of the World such as the Caribbean and Indonesia during the 18th century, for consumption in the West (ARF, 2007).   Caffeine was isolated in tea leaves, coffee seeds and cocoa seeds.   The amount of caffeine contained in coffee seeds is more than that contained in tea leaves.Tea leaves contain about 3.5 % of caffeine (ARF, 2007).   For that reason, a cup of tea will contain less amount of caffeine compared to that of a glass of coffee.   In the US, about 66 % of the caffeine users consume coffee, whereas 16 % consume it from tea and/or sodas (ARF, 2007).   Students frequently consume sodas, drinking chocolate, medications and special of the coffee beverage.   About 80 to 98 % of all the people in the US consume coffee.   About one-third o the population consumes more than 200 mg of caffeine every day (which is slightly more than 2 cups of coffee) (Engebretsen, 2001).   Most of users of coffee consume it for its mild stimulating effect, without developing any problem.However, some individuals develop a maladaptive or abnormal pattern of use resulting in several problems such as abuse, tolerance, withdrawal, addiction and toxicity (Moore, 2004).   Caffeine abuse can begin in adolescents, teenagers, early adulthood and middle-aged groups.   The incidence is increasing in school and college students these days (Moore, 2004).   Studies have demonstrated that girls more often than boys abuse caffeine (in the form of chocolates and alcohol) (Greenberg, 1999).   A survey conducted amongst college students demonstrated that about 17 % of the students consumed about 5 to 10 glasses of bevarges containing caffeine on a daily basis (Grafton, 1991).Many students are utilizing caffeine as a mood-altering drug to stay awake during nights for studying or to remain attentive during class hours.   Many students may like the slightly bitter taste of caffeine or the instant boost of energy provided by the drink.   In the world, caffeine is the most widely utilized mood-elevating drug.   More than 80 % of the adult population in the world utilize caffeine as a beverage in coffee, soda, tea or drinking chocolate (Gates, 2000).   On an average, an adult consumes about 280 milligrams of coffee a day, from about 2 to 3 cups of coffee (Gates, 2000).   Usually a small amount of caffeine may be beneficial to health producing a positive effect on the body.   The amount of caffeine present in a glass of coffee varies from the manner in which it is prepared, the amount of milk present, size of the glass and the strength of the coffee.   It may vary from about 65 mg to about 110 mg of caffeine per glass (ARF, 2007).   A glass of tea contains about 10 mg to about 90 mg of caffeine (on an average about 30 mg).   A glass of hot drinking chocolate contains about 4 mg of caffeine and a bar of chocolate contains about 5 to 60 mg of caffeine (average about 50 mg of caffeine) (ARF, 2007).Caffeine is also present in prescription and non-prescription medications, in doses between 30 to 200 mg, for treating various problems such as colds, migraine, headache, excessive drowsiness, inattentiveness, etc (ARF, 2007).   It can also be utilized to treat withdrawal symptoms developing from caffeine abuse, and for improving the analgesic properties of other drugs.   The drug is frequently util ized in newborn babies who suffer from a condition in which their breathing gets depressed.   This is because caffeine is known to stimulate breathing.   Some of the potential uses of caffeine (for which further studies need to be conducted) include treating dermal fungal infection, improving sperm mobility, in chemotherapy and in ECT.Caffeine when consumed reaches the tissues almost immediately (within 5 to 10 minutes).   These levels may be maintained in the body for about 30 minutes.   The drug gets broken down into smaller substances within about 4 hours (ARF, 2007).   The enzyme cytochrome P450 1A2 produced by the liver helps to metabolize the drug (Moore, 2004).   Individuals suffering from liver and kidney diseases, pregnant women, small babies, etc, take longer time to break down the drug.   On the other hand, individuals consuming nicotine are able to break down the drug at a much faster rate, and hence require greater amounts of the drug.   The drug usually does not accumulate in the body, and is significantly broken down into smaller substances and emitted in the urine.   A smaller quantity of the drug may be emitted in the urine unchanged (about 3 %) (ARF, 2007).The drug produces its effect almost immediately after consumption (Short-Term Effects).   The individual may have to consume about 75 to 150 mg to produce the physiological effects of the drug.   Some of the physiological effects of the drug include an increase in the metabolism rate of the body, faster breathing rates, increase in the urine output (as caffeine is a diuretic), rise in the serum fatty acid levels, rise in the blood pressure, an increase in the gastric acid production by the stomach, etc (ARF, 2007).   The drug also has an effect on the mental status of the individual such as increasing the activity of the brain and the nerves, delaying the development of tiredness, improving various mental functions such as attention levels, concentration levels, memo ry, perception, etc.   Fine movements are also improved when about 75 to 150 mg of caffeine is consumed (ARF, 2007).   The drugs also delays sleep and lower the intensity or depth of sleep.   An individual, who consumes caffeine before going to bed, is at a greater chance of being woken or moving during sleep.   The quality of sleep experienced by caffeine abusers is also less.   Fewer studies are so far conducted to determine the effects of caffeine on dreaming (ARF, 2007).In higher doses, the drug can act negatively leading to anxiety, jitteriness, agitation, confusion, a rise in the heart beats, abdominal pain, agitation, nausea, vomiting, headache and nervousness (Gates, 2000).   The effects are especially profound in those individuals who less frequently use caffeine.   In very high-doses, the drug may almost be fatal, causing a diabetes-like condition in which the sugar levels rise in the blood and the urine has a sick-sweetish smell of acetone (ARF, 2007).   T he fatalities may begin when about 5000 mg of the drug (about 35 to 40 cups of coffee) are consumed during a very short period of time (ARF, 2007).   However, the drug when administered intravenously (in doses of about 3200mg) may cause fatalities (ARF, 2007).   Fatalities may also occur from severe seizures and disastrous effects on the nervous system (such as intra-cerebral hemorrhages, etc) and the heart (such as myocardial infarction, hypertensive crisis, etc) (Engebretsen, 2001).Certain signs, known as ‘Withdrawal Symptoms’ are experienced when the drug is no longer consumed or is suddenly stopped (usually develops within 12 to 24 hours once the drug has been stopped) (Moore, 2004)..   Students usually begin to feel anxious, panic and sleepless when they do not get their daily dose of coffee (Gates, 2000).   Some of the other effect that may be experienced when the student suddenly stops consuming of caffeine includes a depressed mood, poor concentration ab ility, reduction of other cognitive functions, headache etc.   These symptoms may gradually reduce within a couple of days to about a week (Moore, 2004).   If an individual consumes about 100 mg of caffeine a day, a sudden stoppage of the drug would bring about headache and tiredness.   Many people continue to use caffeine in spite of problems experienced when the drug is stopped, considering that it would be easier to give up caffeine compared to other drugs such as alcohol and nicotine.   However, research has demonstrated that stopping caffeine could be much difficult at it seems.   Further research is required to demonstrate the difficulties that could develop when caffeine abuse should be stopped.   Earlier, when not much was known about nicotine abuse, it was publicly felt that nicotine consumption was not much of a problem, and the drug could be easily stopped without much problem.   However, studies have demonstrated that nicotine consumption is one of the most severe forms of drug abuse can could even lead to life-threatening problem (Gates, 2000).Tolerance on the other hand, is the ability to gradually withstand higher amounts of the dug without producing the physiological effects in the body, once the drug is repeatedly utilized over a period of time (Gates, 2000).   The level of tolerance that develops in students is very difficult to study as almost everyone uses caffeine on a day to day basis, to different levels.   The effects of caffeine may be tolerated as the drug is consumed regularly.   As the individual consumes caffeine for longer periods, he/she may require more and more quantities of the drug to produce similar effects (ARF, 2007).Addiction is a serious condition in which the individual resists higher amounts of the drug and develops withdrawal symptoms once the drug is stopped.   Addiction can lead to several problems at functioning at home, school, workplace or in social settings (Gates, 2000).Studies conducted d emonstrated that like other stimulants, caffeine can also bring about Dependence (both physiologically and psychologically).   When the drug is consumed in doses of 350 mg and above, physical dependence on the drug can develop.   Once, the drug is stopped, immediately withdrawal symptoms can develop (ARF, 2007).   This is frequently characterised by severe headache that reduces once the drug us consumed.   The individual also begins to feel irritable, anxious and tired.   However, the dependence brought about by caffeine is much weaker in intensity and is less injurious to health compared to other forms of substance abuse.   Studies conducted demonstrate that coffee may bring about a lot of problems with the functioning of the heart, nervous system and the stomach (Gates, 2000).Individuals consuming caffeine over long periods of time also develop Toxicity.   This usually develops if the daily consumption of coffee exceeds 7 to 9 glasses of coffee a day (or about 650 mg of caffeine).   Some of the symptoms of long-term toxicity include sleeplessness, apprehension, anxiety, nausea, palpitations, vomiting, irritability, depression, distress, mood disorders, rise in the blood pressure, gastric ulcers, irregular heartbeats, tremors, rise in the heartbeats, rise in the cholesterol levels in the blood, etc.   These symptoms usually reduce gradually within 6 to 8 hours (Moore, 2004).   The effect of caffeine toxicity on the body cells to produce cancer and heart disease is rather unknown.   Caffeine to some extent may bring about changes to the cells and the tissues and may also provoke certain known carcinogens to bring about cancer (ARF, 2007).   Several studies conducted in animals have demonstrated that caffeine may actually have properties that retard cancer.   Diethylstilbestrol contains amounts of caffeine and is frequently given to women in order to prevent breast cancer from occurring (ARF, 2007).Animal studies have demonstrated that caffeine use has can cause a series of reproductive problems including infertility, reduced birth weight, congenital anomalies, etc.   The exact effect of the drug in human beings is not known and should be researched further.   In the US, pregnant women are advised to limit consumption of coffee during their pregnancy in order to reduce the ill-effects on the developing unborn baby (ARF, 2007).Caffeine abuse is seen more frequently, as people do not consider it problematic or causing life-threatening conditions.   College students depend frequently on caffeine or it products to stay awake during the nighttimes before examinations or in the classroom.   Although, in low doses caffeine does not cause any serious problems to the body, when consumed in high doses, caffeine behaves like nicotine, having injurious effects on the body (Gates, 2000).Caffeine is known to elevate the heart rate above that of normal.   When an individual is using caffeine, he may find it difficult to suddenly stop the drug.   However, it may be easier than nicotine to stop the drug over a period of time.   As such, it is easier to cut down on caffeine consumption gradually, than over nicotine consumption (Gates, 2000).Some students begin to consume coffee almost for the same reason for which they consume alcohol and cigarettes (that is in a social gathering with other students) (Gates, 2000).   Others may consume caffeine in order to reduce the effects of alcohol or to sober up.   However, it should be noted that caffeine does not reduce the effects of alcohol or any other drug (McGee, 2005).Some students drink coffee to relax, express energy and develop peace of mind.   They tend to utilize the drug in spite of these problems and may have tried to stop consuming the drug but have failed in their efforts (Gates, 2000).   Students should give up caffeine abuse as it consumption (like nicotine abuse) could be injurious to health.   Studies have demonstrated that c affeine abuse usually does not develop due to any serious problems in life.   Just workplace tensions or academic difficulties at the university can promote caffeine misuse (Gates, 2000).Students affected with caffeine abuse should be educated and motivated by the college teachers about the ill-effects of the drug and the problems it could cause.   Greater awareness is required as students may not know of the potential complications that the drug could bring about.   Awareness programs and sessions meant for developing attitudes towards drug use should also include caffeine abuse.   Counselors should be arranged in the schools and universities to help students get out of their problems with caffeine abuse.   If a student feels that certain amount of coffee is required (as it would be harmless and in fact beneficial to the body), a coffee consumption record (in the form of a diary) should be maintained, to ensure that the amount consumed is within limits (Moore, 2004).    The best way to give up caffeine abuse is to gradually limit the consumption of the drug over a period of time.   The consumption of coffee in children and adolescents should be monitored closely.   It could have several ill-effects on the nutrition and development of the adolescent.   In no way caffeine drinks should be utilized to replace milk in the diet.   Caffeine can also act as an appetite suppressant and prevent the child from consuming food.   Some hyperactive children may also have more problems when given caffeine (McGhee, 2005).

The Relationship between Self-Esteem and Aggression Dissertation

The Relationship between Self-Esteem and Aggression - Dissertation Example The following review of literatures will identify the findings of twelve research articles along with their originality in terms of research on the area chosen. A study by Baumeister, Bushman and Campbell (2000) bring in the importance of threatened egotism to explain the relation between aggression and self regard. The contemporary works of the authors did not confirm the association between low self-esteem and aggression which was established theoretically by traditional views. In fact the new concepts of narcissism and unstable self-esteem can foresee aggression more efficiently. The article explores the research domain with the help of different literatures, some of which explain why people with low self-esteem were less liable to cause aggression. Normally such people will try to avoid risk and hence would not take the risk of being aggressive towards others. In fact people with fluctuating self-esteem or manic depression are more likely to be aggressive and display violence during the manic phase when the person has high views about himself compared to the phase of depression when self-esteem is at its low. This also explains the aggre ssive orientation caused by alcoholic people during the phase of intoxication when the self-esteem momentarily heightens. The second part of the discussion presented in the research now moves on to explore the newer constructs in order to defend the low self-esteem hypothesis regarding aggression. Studies showed that narcissism or unstable self-esteem was more responsible for violence and aggression than low self-esteem. After studying different literatures the authors have inferred that hidden low self-esteem demonstrating self doubts might bring on aggression rather than obvious low self-esteem. In fact high self-esteem is a characteristic of both aggressive and no aggressive people. Again narcissistic people are aggressive towards specific individuals who insult or criticize them rather than being aggressive socially. The original angle in the research lies in the fact that this study explored the new constructs like threatened egotism or hidden low self-esteem rather than trying to establish he simple and direct link between self-esteem and aggression explored till then. Anderson and Bushman (2002) studied the different theories on aggression showed by human beings and the original angle of the research lies in the use of general aggression model (GAM) to incorporate different variables which reflect cognition effect, apart from situational and personological parameters. The use of this model also helps this study to identify the required research which can fill in the gaps in theoretical frameworks and this can help in testing the interventions in bringing down aggression. The study begins with definitions of aggression and related terms and then discusses the particular theories of aggressive behaviour before embarking on the General Aggression Model. The model considers three categories of inputs – person factors (values, goals, beliefs) and circumstances (drugs, pain, frustration etc) related inputs, cognitive (hostile thoughts, scripts etc), af fective (mood and emotion etc) and arousal paths along which the inputs have their final impact and lastly, the results of the implied process of appraisal and decision making. Certain means of interventions are also suggested with the help of this model and these include multisystemic therapy like family oriented methods etc, prison treatments etc and the model also predicts that with age and experience aggression might decrease. The literatures studied in the research also show the relation between high self-esteem and a